Tort law Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2000 words - 3

Tort law - Essay Example Therefore, duty is an essential element in to establish negligence. The claimant must prove that the defendant had failed to carry out the minimum standard of care in performing his duty. It is also important to prove that the claim for damages had arisen out of that failure to perform such duty. In addition, it has to be proved that the defendant was duty bound to exercise care towards the claimant2. In order, to establish a duty of care, three requirements have to be fulfilled. First, some foreseeable damage should have been caused to the claimant. Second, there should be a closer relationship between the claimant and the defendant that establishes a duty of care. Third, such relationship should be just and reasonable in imposing a duty on the defendant3. The doctrine of duty of care was first developed in Donoghue v Stevenson4. Since then this concept remained unchanged, until the 1970 case of Dorset Yacht v Home Office. In that case, it was held that a duty of care was present, if the damage was predictable5. In Donoghue v Stevenson, the plaintiff’s friend ordered a ginger beer. After she had consumed a portion of the drink, she noticed the remains of a rotten and decomposed snail in the beer. Donoghue fell ill on account of having consumed the contaminated beer, and brought a suit against the defendant, who was the manufacturer of the ginger beer6. Their Lordships opined that the plaintiff had legal grounds for her claim under the existing law. This decision was a landmark decision and became a legal principle in countries following common law. This decision constitutes the basis for the modern legal principles relating to product liability of manufacturers. This principle has been established as tort of negligence in tort law, and applies to all civil wrongs and claims7. In Capro v Dickman an economic loss transpired, on account of the negligent statement made by the defendant.

A Study of Globalisation Essay Example for Free

A Study of Globalisation Essay Executive Summary This paper attempts to make sense of globalisation from a social and business perspective. Initially I will talk briefly about globalisation within our community and the different stand points those communities and individuals have taken; for and against globalisation. I will then talk about the multinational companies that have made the phenomenon of globalisation possible and these companies various impacts on societies and local communities around the world. The topic is further analysed by using multinational food retailing companies in Latin America as a case study. Displayed to the reader through this case will be a clear indication of how local communities and in particular their farmers are affected by globalisation and multinational companies. There are many different views on globalisation; and those against it oppose many different aspects of it. One of the countless reasons why there are anti-globalisation activists is due to the following: Multinational food retailing companies, the backbone of what is known as globalisation within the supermarket industry, have in many cases entered small farming communities around the globe and destroyed a way of life for many of the farmers and labourers around them. Within Latin America these farmers have been forced to flee their homes to find refuge within the slums of the urban sprawls within their cities or even to cross borders into the USA. Introduction to Globalisation Definition: Globalisation can be defined as the intensification of worldwide social relations which link distant localities in such a way that local happenings are shaped by events occurring many miles away and vice versa (Giddens 1990). It has also been described as process which embodies a transformation in the spatial organisation of social relations and transactions assessed in terms of their extensity, intensity, velocity and impact generating transcontinental or inter-regional flows and networks of activity. (Held, et al 1999) In relation to Latin America (the major area of discussion of this paper) globalisation can be defined as a practice or system that has affected several of the continents most persistent problems. Such problems would be the diverse extent of economic exploitation and social disparity that has branded Latin America ever since its European colonisation in the sixteenth century. (Harris Halebsky 1995) Pro-globalisation: Free trade fosters prosperity and has an extremely important characteristic that affects our way of life. This characteristic is actually its tendency to be able to prevent war. Extensive research has shown that trade promotes peace both directly, by reducing the danger of military divergence, and indirectly, by promoting prosperity and democracy (Weede 2004). Globalisation and free trade in the 20th century and beyond can be compared with the 19th Century expansion of empires (like the British Empire). These empires built an infrastructure in developing countries; railways, ports and beautifully constructed colonial buildings were just some of the benefits these developing countries could take advantage of. Even though these commodities werent built for the benefit of the developing country (they were built for British trade) they still ultimately increased these countries abilities to trade and to become technologically independent. In the 20th Century infrastructure, technology, health and education systems implemented by the world powers, in developing and developed countries, has improved the overall quality of life for people worldwide, this does not include Africa. The average GDP for all countries except Africa has gone up; however the downside is; the difference between the rich and poor countries has also increased. The reason for this is that the countries introducing themselves to the developing countries are actually gaining a much more significant benefit. Anti-globalisation: This term is more commonly attributed to the political standpoint of certain people, groups and organisations that are in opposition to certain facets of globalisation. Those in resistance often oppose large multi-national companys dominance of global trade agreements and trade-governing bodies like WTO (the World Trade Organisation) (Graeber 2002). Otherwise known as a social movement, anti-globalisation represents its participants in their opposition to large corporations who endeavour to attain and have attained political power. Political power can be put into effect via international trade agreements, anti globalisation activists scrutinize these agreements, stating that they quite often undermine the environment, labour rights, national sovereignty, the third world, and other various aspects of our everyday lives as human beings (Graeber 2002). It is common knowledge that globalisation and free trade can affect developing countries negatively, however, the worlds most developed countries and the people who live within them are also affected negatively. Globalisation forces job opportunities from these developed countries to other countries around the world and low skilled workers in developed countries lose their jobs. This increases the difference between the rich populace and poorer populace in that country. The following quote, from the United Nations, backs this statement up and shows us why there are anti-globalisation activists. The richest fifth of the world have 80% of the worlds income and the poorest fifth have 1%; this gap has doubled between 1960 and 2000 (United Nations 1999) largely due to the impacts of globalisation. As displayed above, multi-national corporations play a substantial role within the theory and practice of globalisation, these corporations are powerful by nature and currently account for over 33 per cent of world output, and 66 per cent of world trade (Gray 1999). These organisations even though considered to be global companies are still heavily nationally embedded in terms of their business activity (Hirst and Thompson 1996). Despite this; multinational corporations still have considerable economic and cultural power. The next section of this paper will talk about these companies, their branding and how they affect communities around the world. Globalisation Multinational Companies Social Impact (How do they impact our local communities?) Branding: The main driving force for the growth of multi-national companies and the globalisation of their impact is in their brand (Klein 2001). In the mid-1980s a management theorists came up with a seemingly harmless idea that successful corporations must primarily produce brands, as opposed to products. This idea led to the exorbitant expansion of wealth and cultural influence we see in multinational companies today and over the past fifteen years (Klein 2001). Brand builders are the new primary producers in our so-called knowledge economy (Klein 2001). Modern multinational companies have used a strait to the point yet brutally honest approach to branding over the past fifteen years. This approach is that companies should not disburse their limited capital on factories that will require physical maintenance, on equipment that will decay or on workers who will undoubtedly age and perish. As an alternative, they should focus that capital in the processes used to build their brands (Smith Smith 2002). Multinationals: Multinational corporations are in actuality weak and vague organisations that generally display the corrosion of everyday values that afflict practically all late contemporary social institutions (Gray 1999). Diverse communities around the world are impacted and exploited by these multinational companies. They continually create or contract business in countries where they can profit from cheaper wages and assets. As discussed earlier this can mean added wealth and infrastructure for that community. However, it quite often means increased levels of unemployment in the city/country where the industry was located beforehand. Not to mention that the wages payed and work environment in the communities where the operations are implemented are usually relatively poor (Smith Smith 2002). Below are a few examples that articulate this situation perfectly: * The numbers of people living on less than $2 per day has risen by almost 50% since 1980, to 2.8 billion-almost half the worlds population. And this is precisely the period that has been most heavily liberalized (World Bank 2000). * The worlds poorest countries share of world trade has declined by more than 40 per cent since 1980 to a mere 0.4 per cent (UNCTAD 1999). This has been precisely the period in which the majority of multinational companies have grown exponentially, and is obviously a large factor resulting from their growth. Multinationals apart from affecting whole economic systems of countries and communities also attempt to create new markets within these communities. They search for new markets which have not yet been exploited in order to increase sales; it is typically carried out by creating new desires among target groups. The easiest target market for multinational companies to create new desires for is the child and youth market. Prized not only for the influence they have over adult spending but also for their own escalating spending power, the youth of today are one of the most profitable and influential markets (Kenway and Bullen 2001). Despite all this negative hype about multinational companies; they have played a very significant role in the growth of globalisation. Around the world individuals and communities are linked much closer to each other and information and money flow quicker than ever before. Globalisation and its creation of multinationals has resulted in making goods and services in one part of the world increasingly available in all parts of the world. International travel and communication is also much more frequent. In all globalisation has made life easier for those who can actually afford the luxuries of travel and international business. (Sourcewatch 2006). The Food Chain; Survival of the Biggest A case study of Latin America and the detrimental effects globalisation and multinational food retail companies have had on its local farmers. Commodity prices have fallen dramatically, by some two thirds over the past 30 years, so that farmers have had to triple production just to maintain their incomes. One example among many: in just the last three years, Tanzanian farmers experienced a decline of 50% in the price of coffee. (OXFAM 2001) While farmers earn less, consumers have been paying more. (ONeill 2001) Although, according to the U.N. Food and Agriculture Organisation, Latin America produces four times the amount of food needed to feed the population, 58 million people are still malnourished. Introduction: During the 1980s a transformation within Latin America began; this transformation was one that would shape the future of farmers all over the continent for decades to come. For some it would be a positive change, however a large majority found it to be the opposite. The transformation I talk about is opening up of trade barriers within Latin America in order to allow food retailing companies access to the regions un-commercialised and fertile lands. During the 1990s the revolution in food retailing within Latin America accelerated extraordinarily as countries unbolted their economies to suit conditions for financing from the International Monetary Fund and the World Bank. As Latin Americas overall FDI significantly increased; multinational food retailers bought out local chains and entered joint ventures with the obstinate ones. The greatest fears for farmers in the region were realised when the multinational companies introduced unfair trade rivalry from American and European growers with weighted financial backing. Small farmers are constantly left to compete with the biggest world players as these food retailing chains (products of globalisation) move from large cities to smaller towns and from economically sound countries to ones still developing their economic and social systems (Dugger 2004). These chains are now the prevailing force in the trade of processed foods and theyre produce sales are growing to a similar reputati on. When global food retail companies dominate a market, there are scenarios whereby it can be seen to be advantageous for all the citizens within that community. Such a scenario would be when the economy, of the region being taken over, is growing energetically and spawning decent jobs for globalisations losers, because in spite of everything the chains are creating cheaper, cleaner and safer shopping environments for these societies. Samuel Morley, a visiting research fellow at the International Food Policy Research Institute (IFPRI), has written extensively on inequality and labour economics in Latin America, he stated that It would be an appealing transformation of the sector if alternative jobs could be made available, however these scenarios never seem to materialise in Latin America and other developing countries/continents around the world as they do not have economies of great strength. As Latin Americas population grows its economic situation trails further and further behind. In Latin America, 220 million of the total regional population of 500 million people are poor. The case study that I will shortly talk about outlines just how bad the situation in Guatemala is, Guatemala is actually one of Latin Americas better off regions, with supermarkets controlling 10-15% of grocery sales. Therefore the case gives you an indication of what the more unfortunate farming communities, in Latin America, must have to endure. For example in Argentina supermarket chains control 30% of this industry and in Brazil; 50% (Dugger 2004). Rural markets shrink throughout the continent, even though the victims of globalisation are pushed to trade within them, these rural markets are slowly but surely lost in the black holes that we call multinational companies. Within a single decade Latin Americas farming communities have been transformed by food retail giants such as Ahold and Walmart. These multinational goliaths have transfigured food distribution by offering low prices, a range of choices and convenience; they are now also changing the face of food growing (Dugger 2004). This could seem positive to some, however it is far from that; there are thousands of Latin American farming communities who have been devastated by the unforseen and overwhelming challenges that these companies bring (Dugger 2004). The major visible impact that these changes have had within the farming communities over the past decade is the great increase in the number of, now penniless, farming migrants entering the urban slums of their own countries and crossing the American border to seek refuge from their new corporately governed country side. Guatemalas Local Farmers Suffer (Case): Within the serene confines of the extraordinarily fertile and incredibly poor Guatemala, supermarket giants have crushed farmers to the point where they are no longer able to maintain operations within the land they once called home. Guatemala was once, not long ago, a place where people swapped produce for service and service for produce, money was required to sustain theyre everyday living, however, life was effortless and uncomplicated up until the multinational giants arrived on Latin American shores. Guatemalan man Mario Chinchilla would inspect his field of sickly tomatoes on a daily basis; he would labour all day trying to meet the requirements of the new supermarkets which had opened up in town, however no amount of labour could possibly turn his crop into the stout, flawless product that Guatemalas leading supermarket chain offered to its customers (Dugger 2004). A better product at a cheaper price, it seems good all round doesnt it, but at the end of the day it has ruined many people lives. The chain I talk about is a giant Dutch multinational company named Ahold (Worlds 3rd largest retailer). The Chain is so large it includes names such as Bi-Lo and Stop Shop under its assets. For some time Mario headed a farmers cooperative that was managing to sell produce to the chain however this proved to be an ephemeral opportunity whereby the multinational chain ran away with the locals hopes and dreams, leaving them to sit in their unsold crops of rotting vegetables. The reason for this was because the multinational retailers require farmers who encompass the proficiency and capital to invest in modern farming technologies such as; greenhouses, drip irrigation and pest control (Dugger 2004). They wanted consistent supply without ups and downs, said Mr Chinchilla. We didnt have the capacity to do it (Dugger 2004). Inequality, rebellion and violent repression within Latin America has been a recurring problem for many decades, during the 1990s there was already a gap between rich and poor and the supermarket chains have simply added to this gap. This time Latin America has tried a different (non-violent) approach. In order to fight for their right to live comfortably in their homeland farmers joined forces; there are rare success stories, however many (like Mario Chinchilla and his Co-op) have suffered a more common fate. In Guatemala there is a tiny farming community named Lo de Silva; more than 300 farmers who originally belonged to Mr. Chinchillas co-op, the Association of Small Irrigation Users of Palencia, were from this village (Dugger 2004). Out of those 300 farmers there are only 8 still enduring the torment that globalisation has brought them. These remaining farmers arent even able to sell to the supermarkets they sell their product to middle men for severely discounted prices; to top this off the only product the middlemen will accept from them is salad tomatoes. Mr. Chinchillas case is an ideal example that demonstrates how the opportunity of success for small farmers is a remote prospect to most. Small farmers are simply getting left behind due to their lack of market pull and marketing/operational techniques (Dugger 2004). A survival of the biggest situation has been created only the big can serve the big; the small need not apply, as global companies wipe out local distinctions in establishing a level economic playing field. (Hannaford 2006). During the 1990s food retail conglomerates went from controlling between 10 and 20 percent of the Latin American market to totally dominating it (Economist.com 1997). During this period, in Guatemala specifically, the quantity of supermarkets has more than doubled; as their share of food retailed has reached 35 percent. The smaller shops and open air markets still remain and retail a great deal of fruits and vegetables in Guatemala. For customers to leave these historically enriched and characterised markets and enter the newly opened supermarkets in the region, is to leave behind Guatemala and enter a commercialised shopping centre that could reside in Hong Kong or London, with its marked down jumbo packages and symmetrical fruits in plastic trays. None of this, however, matters unless the bottom line is understood. The bottom line is that the rules of the World Trade Organisation are actually taking second place in importance to the privately set standards of the food retail giants. Also pressures from the I.M.F. and the World Bank to allow greater foreign investment into Latin America were proposed to formulate more competitive economies for them; however it is obvious that this model didnt have a community element at its centre. Hardships have come from; not only what I described previously (the fact that the farmers must sell theyre produce at much cheaper prices, better quality and in a more convenient matter) but also from the fact that that they are now competing with the rest of Latin America, the United States and even the world because trade borders have been opened to allow almost anyone import and export capabilities. Rigid opposition from internationally renound growers is now a reality for Central and Latin American farmers; at a distribution centre, for a subsidiary company of Ahold in Guatemala City, shipments of apples from Washington, pineapples from Chile, potatoes from Idaho and avocados from Mexico are brought in (Hannaford 2006). Conclusion Globalisation has positive and negative affects on our society. This paper has outlined in great detail the negative affects of globalisation and multinational food retailing companies on Latin Americas and the worlds small farmers. The reason for this is due to the fact that there were; only on occasion, very rare and unusual success stories to be found about smaller farmers succeeding in their sales to companies such as Ahold and Walmart, within Latin America. After researching farming communities around the globe, it can be deduced that Latin America is not alone in this battle to produce food and sell it at competitive prices, while still maintaining some sort of meaningful social existence. Asian, African and Indian farmers; have been heavily exploited. Even farmers within more developed countries such as Australia have had to sell their products at severely discounted prices in order to satisfy multinational company standards. Farmers world wide, are however, not alone. Traditional strategies of help to farmers that feel the hardships of globalisation, such as providing fertilizers and improved seeds, are no longer enough to enable them to sustain their businesses. Professors and agronomists are banding together to document trends and develop new methods of help that will allow the fleeing farmers of Latin America, Africa and Asia to compete with others in selling products to the multinationals. In the midst of the these methods a few techniques stand out, such as; regulations put upon the multinationals that require farmers be paid promptly, laws that restrain these companies from dominating entire markets (such as mergers of supermarket chains) and enhanced hygiene and convenience through technology at open-air markets. After reading this paper I hope you too can conclude it is important that societies living within the limitations of this amazing world are given the chance to experience lifes pleasures and break out of the chain of inevitable failures that multinational corporations have brought to them. Being given the chance to make an honest and fair living, is only basic compassion and mercy; two marvellous characterises that any individual can encompass. If multinational food retail companies and global companies in general were able to, in some way, display this, then Anti-Globalisation would be a much less used expression. References * Dugger, C. W., (2004) Foreign Desk Late Edition Final, Section A, Page 1, Column 1, New York Times December 28, Tuesday. (http://www.nytimes.com) * Economist.com, (1997) Survey: Business In Latin America Back on the pitch, The Economist print edition. * Giddens, A., (1990) Consequences of Modernity. Cambridge: Polity Press. * Graeber, D., (2002) New Left Review 13, January-February issue, The New Anarchist. * Gray, J., (1999) False Dawn. The delusions of global capitalism, London: Granta. 262 pages. * Hannaford, S., (Last updated 2006) Small farmers versus oligopolies: No contest, (http://www.oligopolywatch.com). * Harris, R. L., Halebsky, S., (1995) Capital, Power, and Inequality in Latin America, chapter: The Global Context of Contemporary Latin American Affairs, (Boulder. CO., Westview Press.) * Held, D., McGrew, A., Goldblatt, D. and Perraton, J. (1999) Global Transformations politics, economics and culture, Cambridge: Polity Press. * Hirst, P. and Thompson, G., (1996) Globalisation in Question. London: Polity Press. * Kenway, J. and Elizabeth Bullen, (2001) Consuming Children: Entertainment, Advertising and Education, Open University Press. * Klein, N., (2001) No Logo, London: Flamingo. 490 pages. * ONeill, B., (2001) Whats eating Us? OXFAM News. (http://www.oxfam.ca/news/WorldFoodDay/Whats_eating_us.htm) * OXFAM. (2001) Briefing Paper No 9, November. (http://www.oxfam.org.uk/search?SearchableText=Briefing+Paperssubmit.x=19submit.y=8) * Smith, M. K. and Smith, M., (2002) Globalization encyclopaedia infed. (www.infed.org/biblio/globalization.htm) * Sourcewatch 2006 Globalisation, (Centre for Media and Democracy) http://www.sourcewatch.org/index.php?title=Globalization). * UNCTAD. (1999) Conference on Least Developed Countries. (http://www.unctad.org/Templates/Page.asp?intItemID=3073lang=1) * United Nations. (1999) Human Development Report. * Weede, E., (2004) The Independent Review, Volume 9, number 2, The Diffusion of Prosperity and Peace by Globalisation. * World Bank. (2000) Global Economic Outlook Report. Washington: World Bank.(http://web.worldbank.org/WBSITE/EXTERNAL/DATASTATISTICS/0,,menuPK:232599~pagePK:64133170~piPK:64133498~theSitePK:239419,00.html)

Antimicrobial Activity of Citronella Oil

Antimicrobial Activity of Citronella Oil Background of Study According to Tzortzakis Economakis, (2007) and Arshad et al. (2014), essential oils are volatile, complex mixes with have a solid smell and also structured by fragrant plants as secondary metabolites. Essential oil can be retrieved from plant parts such as buds, leaves, wood, bark, herbs, flowers, twigs, seeds and whole fruit by extraction technique such as steam distillation, cold pressing or extraction (Calo et al., 2015; Burt, 2004). Bakkali et al. (2008) and Calo et al. (2015) stated that essential oil components consists of two groups, terpene compound and aroma compounds. Wijesekara et al. (1997) and Hodges, (2014) also mentioned that terpene hydrocarbons and additionally their oxygenated subordinates, for example aldehydes, acids, alcohols, esters and ketones that presence in essential oils give the unique characters such as antimicrobial properties, antibacterial properties, antioxidant properties and antifungal properties. Citronella oil or scientific names Cymbopogon Nardus L. Randle or C. Winterianus Jowitt is one of the essential oils which is give impactful smell and lemony (Smoron, 2001) with have blue-green leaves that develop over to a tallness of 1.5 meters tall (Hodges, 2014) and are not entirely oil but less soluble in water (Calo et al., 2015). According to Man et al. (2012) citronella oil is well known by its character as mosquito repellent. Besides being mosquito repellent, antimicrobial properties is one of the properties that been investigate latterly (Billerbeck et al., 2001 Victoria et al., 2012). Calo et al. (2015) have summarized that essential oils and their components have been proven to have ability to control the safety of food and naturally contain active compound that can be found in many plants that give ability in reducing microbial growth in effective ways. Thus this finding plus with negative customer attitudes toward food preservatives made the uses of essential oil expan ding in demand to be as potential natural antimicrobials. Furthermore, Calo et al. (2015) highlighted that a perfect antimicrobial would be one that is accessible in huge volumes as a secondary desirable good and safe to consume. Thus, the citronella oil is one of the criteria that suit to be a perfect antimicrobial agent. Based on Environment Protection Agency (EPA), (1997) study, citronella oil is non-toxic and not harmful to human and animals. By inhibition of fungal growth or microbial in products, citronella oil can decrease the danger to human and animal health and make more demand for fruit and vegetable consumption since it can inhibit the growth of this creature. Thus, for this reason it often been proposed to do research in expanding toward the uses of essential oil. Problem Statement Food borne disease outbreaks that usually caused by microbial have made an attempt in reducing product safety and can affect market demand. It has been assessed that upward of 30% experience the food borne disease (WHO, 2014). Moreover, Acharya et al. (2011) stated that from 250 food-borne diseases microbial infection in foodstuff is the major disorder. Food borne diseases are the aftereffect of ingestion of foodstuffs tainted with microorganisms or chemicals and this can happen at any part in the process from food production line to consumers (WHO, 2014). Results from food borne disease is diarrhea and vomiting, this symptoms executes 1.8 million youngest consistently around the world in 2000 (WHO, 2002). A report by Sharifa Ezat et al. (2013) highlighted that number of cases that been reported as food poisoning caused by contamination of microbial shows higher incidence rate and number of cases compare to other disease such as Dysentery, Tyhoid, Cholera and Hepatitis A within year 2000 until 2009. While in agriculture industry, pathogenic and toxinogenic growth are one of the major issues that can influence cannot only fresh produce but also effect human health, economic loss and ecological security (Ru Li et al., 2013). Not only that, post harvest itself also loss their fresh produce during the supply chain and much of this is because of fungal and bacterial disease (Sivakumar Banos, 2014) for example contamination of Aspergillus niger that produce enzymes such as cellulose, amylase and pectinase (Ru Li et al., 2013) that cause food spoilage. Thus to combat this problem especially to control plant pathogenic growths, synthetic fungicides have been utilized because it do not give bad influence on the appearance or nature of the product (Cabral et al., 2013). Unfortunately, broad utilized of synthetic fungicides can affect human and animal that can lead to cancer, toxicity, environmental problem and long degradation period (Cabral et al., 2013; Calo et al., 2015). Antimicrobial chemical is one of the synthetic fungicides that have been used in agriculture such as aromatic hydrocarbons, benzaimidazoles and sterol biosynthesis inhibitors. Fludioxonil which is phenylpyrrole and Pyrimethanil which is anilinopyrimidine are the most popular one that used to control plant disease. Unfortunately, some of these compounds are not biodegradable and unfriendly to nature because it can presence in soil, plants and water also subsequently influence people through food chain relation (Cabral et al., 2013). In spite of the fact that synthetic fungicides have been thought to be the least expensive also best approach to avoid postharvest disease, the unfriendly effects to nature have reduce their acceptance. Objectives of the Study The goals of this study is to To investigate the antimicrobial activity of citronella oil To study the applications of citronella oil in foods To study the mechanical properties of coated PP film and the control PP film Scope of Study In conjunction with the problem statement and objectives of the study, all activities such as desk study, laboratory activities, data analysis and report writing are conducted in one scope of study. The scope of study can be portrayed as: i)Â  Laboratory activities PP film preparation Where the coating solution will be prepared and after preparation of coating solution the PP film will be coated with the coating solution. Fruit sample and E. coli sample The PP film that been coated with solution is then tested on the bacteria growth sample and the fruit sample. ii)Â  Data analysis Measure the ‘zero inhibition zone’ After the sample left for 5 days the clear zone will be formed around the PP film for the bacteria growth sample. The length of clear zone will be measured. Evaluation on fruit sample The PP film that been coated with solution is then tested on the fruit sample by wrapping the fruit sample. The condition of the fruit sample will be evaluated. Mechanical properties The strength of coated PP film and the uncoated PP film will be identifying with an appropriate machine. iii)Â  Report writing Preparation full report After getting the result from lab test, the discussion of the result will be made and prepared. Presentation of project report The study that been made along the semester 1 and semester 2 will be present in front of the panels.

Feminism And Feminist Epistemology And Science Sociology Essay

Feminism And Feminist Epistemology And Science Sociology Essay The word feminism is very challenging and difficult to describe specifically but it has a greater value in todays society mostly in the developing areas like Nepal, Srilanka, Bangladesh etc. The women of developing countries are facing so many problems like inequality from political issues to even in their house. To eradicate such inequality problem from the existing society the word feminism developed. Feminism refers to the beliefs that are injustices against women and they have been devalued and denied full equality (1). Feminism helps to exaggerate the women roles, power and their contribution to the society. It gives the full freedom to the women about their choices of lives. This feminism refers to the equality between men and women. They have equal rights and responsibility towards the society. In the mid-1800s the term feminism was used to refer to the qualities of females (2). The term Feminism was derived from the French word feministe in the 1892 after the first international womens conference in Paris. The term feministe means belief in and advocacy of equal rights for women based on the idea of the equality of the sexes. Although the term feminism in English is rooted in the mobilization or women suffrage in Europe and the US during the late 19th and early 20th century (3). The feminist movement is divided in to three waves; First wave begin during the 19th century and it refers on a newer feminist movement that focused as much on fighting social and cultural inequalities as further political inequalities (4). The second wave in the early of 1960s, feminism saw cultural and political inequalities as inextricably linked and this movement encouraged women to understand aspects of their own lives as deeply politicized and reflective of a sexiest structure of power (5). The third wave movement arise ideology of A post structuralist interpretation of gender and sexuality in the early 1990s (6). These three movements encourage the women for their rights and their equality. The ideology of feminism starts influencing throughout the society after this movement. It brings a revolution in the way men and women are equal to each other and effects fundamental change in society. It entails that the women have equal rights and duty as a man in all aspect. What is feminist epistemology and science? Epistemologist focus on the nature, origins and the limits of human knowledge (7). It is the nature of knowledge itself and its study focuses for acquiring knowledge and differentiate between truth and falsehood. Epistemology concerns every scientific discipline which helps to the collective efforts of human beings. In the modern days the epistemology is the debate between the empiricism (i.e., knowledge is obtained through experience) and rationalism (knowledge can be acquired through reason). There are many aspects of knowledge like social, economical and many more but many of the epistemologist focus on the social aspect of knowledge where the production creation and discovery concerns. Social epistemology is the study of the relevance of social relations, interests, and institutions to knowledge (8). Feminism has also roles in social investigation of knowledge and its epistemology is concerned to the whose knowledge is being considered. Feminist epistemologist does not confess about the empirical evidence but instead of that it suggests knowing the social contexts and social beliefs because of its factuality. Feminist epistemologists of science typically argue that the way science is done includes cultural and social standards in the description of nature. Gender is both part of the cultural idea that shapes how nature is described and is also described by the process of science. The feminist critiques of science: The feminist critique of sciences is a crucial subject where the science may be negatively impacted by postmodern or feminist critiques in a similar way to humanities and social sciences. There is also a debate between the realism and relativism. Realism is that there is an objective world which people learn about. Relativism is the idea that truth is relative in one way or another. It is easy to fall into the trap that a feminist social epistemology-and any field which it makes a statement about, even science-is relativist, and many thinkers have addressed this, either making cases that relativism is correct or making claims for a realist feminist science. Background for the feminist studies of objectivity in sciences: Objectivity is commonly taken to be the extent to which we allow our scientific beliefs to be driven by some impartial and non arbitrary criteria rather than by our wishes as to how things ought to be (9).1 Science is more objective than other areas such as art and literary criticism. To be a science the research programs must follow some criteria, certain norms and rules (i.e., scientific method) rather than the prejudices, guesses and emotions. According to the great philosophers, Thomas Kuhn and Paul Feyerabend suggested the views that emphasize the degree to which what we call science is constituted by factors that seem to fall outside the realm justification. They are not trying to focus on the extent to which science is independent of who does it but instead of that it raise the questions about the real level of objectivity in science and how the scientist outline or modeled which hypothesis or theories pass for scientific knowledge. It is the crucial things to distinct between the real sciences and the rest things (non sciences). Another philosopher, Quine also raised a question about how autonomous science is from the other subjects such as prejudices, guesses and emotions i.e., metaphysical commitments. He suggested that science is not separable from other social, political beliefs that we have. The ideas given by Kuhn and Quine raise a question about the objectivity of science and these doubts arose well within what is sometime considered traditional philosophy of science.9 When the issue of gender was raised mostly many feminists were interested in determining what the possible factors of gender counts are as a scientific knowledge. A feminist tries to find out how the gender plays a role in recreation of scientific knowledge. Moreover, Gender is related with the sexism here the word sexism refers to the male, female and assumption about the superiority of one gender to the other gender however there is no conclusive evidence for that assumption. The way of women are ignoring and demoralizing in almost every field so the feminists began to criticize on those things in which science excluded women, ignored scientific issues pertaining to women and even the scientific theories influencing by the womens societal views reveal a question about the real objectivity of science. Science as Social (Helen Longino Harding): The problem seen by Harding regarding the objectivity in science is that she assumed the traditional conceptions of objectivity. To revealing and assessing the role of cultural and personal interests and values in sciences is very difficult to measure and assess. If the role is being played by cultural and personal interests and values then it is judged to be bad for science, or if the role played is considered inappropriately large then it is argued that it need have a way to eliminate or mitigate this role, thus increasing the extent to which science is objective(10). Harding was the person who finds the way to reveal and assess interests and values in science is to examine them from an alternate point of view, and she claims that current conceptions of objectivity are inadequate for these tasks. Helen longino also face the same problem as seen by Harding and longino tries to solve this problem by focusing on how the scientific community is comprised and behaves instead of not givi ng attention to what individual scientists are doing. Longino claims that science is social, in the sense that doing science requires the interaction of individuals. Feminism and post-feminism: Feminism refers to the belief that women are equal to men. Some feminist argue that women need is not equality rather they need to be recognized and valued in their differences from men but some feminists believe that women need liberation from oppression instead of equal treatment and respect for their differences to men. Feminism seeks to improve the lot of those people who have been made into women, but it cannot rightly be said that feminism seeks to improve the condition of women that would be an impossible, self-contradictory mission (11). According to Rosalind Delmar, it makes more sense to speak of a plurality of feminism than a single one (1986:9). It means that there must be some underlying commitment that all feminist share and make them feminist. Valerie Bryson says that all feminists share the belief that women are disadvantaged in comparison with men, and that this disadvantage is not a natural and inevitable result of biological difference but something that can and should be challenged and changed (Bryson 1993: 192). But some feminists would reject even this, perhaps on the grounds that womens biology does disadvantage them but that recent technologies such as the contraceptive pill allow women to overcome their biological limitations (Firestone 1970). Post-feminists believe that women have achieved second wave goals while being critical of third wave feminist goals. The term was first used in the 1980s to describe a backlash against second-wave feminism. It is now a label for a wide range of theories that take critical approaches to previous feminist discourses and includes challenges to the second waves ideas.(39) Other post-feminists say that feminism is no longer relevant to todays society.(40) Amelia Jones wrote that the post-feminist texts which emerged in the 1980s and 1990s portrayed second-wave feminism as a monolithic entity and criticized it using generalizations.(41) One of the earliest uses of the term was in Susan Bolotins 1982 article Voices of the Post-Feminist Generation, published in New York Times Magazine. This article was based on a number of interviews with women who largely agreed with the goals of feminism, but did not identify as feminists.(42) Some contemporary feminists, such as Katha Pollitt or Nadine Strossen, consider feminism to hold simply that women are people. Views that separate the sexes rather than unite them are considered by these writers to be sexist rather than feminist.'(43)(44) Conclusion: 39.Wright, Elizabeth (2000). Lacan and Postfeminism (Postmodern Encounters). Totem Books. ISBN  978-1-84046-182-9. 40.^ Modleski, Tania (1991). Feminism without women: culture and criticism in a postfeminist age. New York: Routledge. pp.  188. ISBN  0-415-90416-1. 41.^ Jones, Amelia. Postfeminism, Feminist Pleasures, and Embodied Theories of Art, in New Feminist Criticism: Art, Identity, Action, ed. by Joana Frueh, Cassandra L. Langer and Arlene Raven. New York: HarperCollins, 1994. 16-41, 20. 42^Rosen, Ruth (2001). The world split open: how the modern womens movement changed America. New York, N.Y.: Penguin. pp.  444. ISBN  0-14-009719-8. 43.^Pollitt, Katha (1995). Reasonable creatures: essays on women and feminism. New York: Vintage Books. ISBN  978-0-679-76278-2. 44 Strossen, Nadine (1995). Defending pornography: free speech, sex, and the fight for womens rights. New York, N.Y.: Scribner. ISBN  978-0-684-19749-4.

Jfk: Was His Assassination Inevitable? Essay -- essays research papers

A popular misconception is that President John F. Kennedy's assassination was an isolated event perpetrated by one man. This could not be farther from the truth. Instead, it was the result of a complex combination of domestic and foreign events. When President Kennedy was in office, he had to deal with many issues, ranging from business and finance to crime-fighting and war issues. Perhaps it is not as important to decide who it was that killed him, but why. President Kennedy's decisions and courses of action were not popular with everybody, and thus it is not surprising that his assassination was inevitable. The people who might have wanted John F. Kennedy dead can be classified into the following groups: Russians, Cubans, Mobsters (Organized Crime/Mafia), Special Agents (CIA), G-men (J. Edgar Hoover's FBI), Rednecks and Oilmen (Right-wing Extremists), and the MIC (Military Industrial Complex). Each group had its own motives for killing John F. Kennedy. Many of these groups that wanted JFK dead are very closely intertwined, so in order to understand each group, they will each be analyzed seperately.In order to better understand the relationship between JFK, the Cubans and Russians, several important events must be mentioned and discussed. Two of the most important foreign affairs in Kennedy's presidency were the Bay of Pigs and the Cuban Missile Crisis. During Eisenhower's administration, Cuba was torn apart by revolution. The Cuban dictator, Batista, was an extremely corrupt man. While he was enjoying a luxurious life, the people of Cuba were in poverty. Thus it was not surprising when a rebellion, led by a man named Fidel Castro, took place. Batista, knowing that the majority of Cuba wanted him out, chose to flea rather than be caught and face execution. Once Batista was out of the way, Cuba was Castro's for the taking.One of the first actions Castro took while in charge of Cuba was to close down all casinos. The people running them were either imprisoned or deported. Exploitation of Cuban workers by American was unacceptable to Castro, and he took immediate action against this. He believed American capitalists were taking advantage of the Cubans. Angered by this aggressive attitude toward American "interests", the United States government established a trade embargo, hoping the Cuban people would overthrow Castro and reinstate a more &... ... the veracity of these sources leaves something to be desired). However if this is true, the Mafia would definitely consider JFK and his brother going after them as a double-cross, and this would have been a more than strong enough motive for the them to kill Kennedy. It is important to note that the Mafia felt that no person was above them, that nobody is immune from their power. If the Mafia wanted Kennedy dead, and had a motive, is it that unlikely that they did it?The events that would have happened if Kennedy was not to be assassinated were extremely vital. Kennedy was going to remove a thousand soldiers from Vietnam by 1963, and was committed to withdraw all troops by 1965, when Lyndon B. Johnson took office, neither happened. He was going to smash the CIA into a thousand pieces, and replace J. Edgar Hoover as Director of the FBI, this didn't happen. He may have been going to drop Lyndon B. Johnson from the presidential ticket in 1964. Had he not been assassinated Johnson would have never become president. When Johnson took over, he signed NSAM 273, considered to be the opening of the Vietnam war. The commitment meant the MIC would continue to make money, and lots of it.

Dehumanization and Freedom in Narrative of the Life of Frederick Dougla

Dehumanization and Freedom in Narrative of the Life of Frederick Douglass    The issue of slavery in antebellum America was not black and white. Generally people in the North opposed slavery, while inhabitants of the South promoted it. However, many people were indifferent. Citizens in the North may have seen slavery as neither good nor bad, but just a fact of Southern life. Frederick Douglass, knowing the North was home to many abolitionists, wrote his narrative in order to persuade these indifferent Northern residents to see slavery as a degrading practice. Douglass focuses on dehumanization and freedom in order to get his point across. Frederick Douglass emphasizes the dehumanization aspect of slavery throughout his narrative. As is the general custom in slavery, Douglass is separated from his mother early in infancy and put under the care of his grandmother. He recalls having met his mother several times, but only during the night. She would make the trip from her farm twelve miles away just to spend a little time with her child. She dies when Douglass is about seven years old. He is withheld from seeing her in her illness, death, and burial. Having limited contact with her, the news of her death, at the time, is like a death of a stranger. Douglass also never really knew the identity of his father and conveys a feeling of emptiness and disgust when he writes, "the whisper that my master was my father, may or may not be true; and, true or false, it is of but little consequence to my purpose" (Douglass, 40). Douglass points out that many slave children have their masters as their father. In these times, frequently the master would take advantage of female slaves and the children born to the slave w... ... the abolitionist movement is fueled by reading The Liberator, a newspaper that stirs his soul in fighting for the anti-slavery cause. While attending an anti-slavery convention at Nantucket on August 11, 1841, Douglass, with encouragement from Mr. William C. Coffin, speaks for the first time to a white audience about slavery. In conclusion, Frederick Douglass starts his life as a slave determined to get his freedom. At the end of his life, he is one of the foremost figures of the abolitionist movement. Douglass' narrative takes advantage of the literal advantage in order to abolish slavery. Through depictions of dehumanization and freedom, Frederick Douglass' narrative is instrumental in swaying the views of the indifferent Northern residents. Work Cited: Douglas, Frederick. Narrative of the Life of Frederick Douglas. New York: Signet, 1968.

Compare and Contrast Presidents Essay

Like any two people in the world Franklin D. Roosevelt and Ronald Reagan both have their own views about war, women’s rights, gay rights, foreign policy, and many other problems facing our country. These two presidents have greatly impacted our country since they were in office. Roosevelt and Reagan have helped shape our country into what it is today. Franklin D. Roosevelt was born in 1882 in New York. He went to Harvard University and Columbia Law School. He was elected New York senate in 1910. In 1921 he was diagnosed with poliomyelitis. In 1928 Roosevelt became the Governor of New York. He was elected the 32nd president of the United States in November 1932. There were thirteen million unemployed by March and nearly every bank was closed. Roosevelt made it his main goal to restore businesses and agriculture. Three years later our nation had achieved somewhat recovery. Businessmen and bankers still blamed the horrific economy on the current president. His idea was called the Roosevelt’s New Deal program. Not too many people were thrilled about this program to say the least. He took the nation off the gold standard and allowed deficits in the budget. After this program failed, Roosevelt made a new program or Hanson 2 reform known as Social Security. This put heavier taxes on the wealthy, new controls over the banks, and a huge relief program for the economy. While Roosevelt was president he also added the United States to the â€Å"good neighbor† policy. Its main principle was that of non-intervention and non-interference in the domestic affairs of Latin America. Another goal was to keep the United States out of war in Europe. A huge event all of us know was the Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor on December 7, 1941. This officially got us involved in World War II. Although Roosevelt didn’t like confliction he announced a global war. Ronald Reagan was born on February 6, 1911 in Illinois. He attended Eureka College and studied economics and sociology. As Reagan grew older his political views went from liberal to conservative. In 1966 he was elected governor of California then re-elected in 1970. In 1980 Reagan won the Republican Presidential nomination then took office on January 20, 1981. He won the presidential race easily due to the inflation and secret of Americans in Iran. Only sixty-nine days later after he took office he was shot. While Reagan was in office the economy grew, inflation lessened, employment increased, and national defense was strengthened. He helped the economy by cutting taxes and government expenses. In 1984, Reagan won a second term due to his brilliance in his first. At the end of his presidency the nation had the longest period of peacetime prosperity without recession or depression. Both Roosevelt and Reagan dealt with major events involving foreign affairs. During Reagans two terms he increased defense spending 35 percent, but sought to improve relations with the Soviet Union. He attended meetings with Soviet leader Hanson 3 Mikhail Gorbachev and negotiated a treaty that would eliminate intermediate-range nuclear missiles. Reagan also declared war against international terrorism, sending American bombers against Libya after evidence came out that Libya was involved in an attack on American soldiers in a West Berlin nightclub. While Roosevelt was president he wanted to increase the influence and prestige of the United States on the world and make the country a global power. One of Roosevelt’s famous quotes was â€Å"speak softly and carry a big stick†. He was willing to use force when needed but also using persuasion instead of violence. One of the biggest foreign policies involved in his presidency was that of the Panama Canal. Roosevelt was aggressive with foreign policy and so was Reagan. During Reagans presidency the economy was in pretty good shape. The economy grew, inflation lessened, employment increased, and national defense was strengthened. He helped the economy by cutting taxes and government expenses as well. Roosevelt on the other hand wasn’t as lucky with the economy as Reagan. Roosevelt took presidency during the great depression. He had to make huge efforts and changes to try to get the economy back on track. Over the next eight years, the government instituted a series of experimental projects and programs, known collectively as the New Deal. This was aimed to restore some measure of dignity and prosperity to many Americans. Both Franklin D. Roosevelt and Ronald Reagan had very eventful office terms. They also had their differences. While Roosevelt was president the 22nd Amendment wasn’t made so the presidential term was longer than it is today. Both presidents had to deal with wars, foreign affairs, tax cuts, and reduction on government Hanson 4 spending. Also, before Reagan and Roosevelt were elected president they were Governors of states as well. Ronald Reagan and Franklin D. Roosevelt played major roles in making our country into what it is today. Without these two presidents I don’t know where our country would be. Both helped our economy tremendously, strengthen our foreign affairs, and made America a global leader. Granted they had different views on some things; they still were two great presidents. Hanson 5 Work Cited Beschloss, Michael, and Hugh Sidey. The Presidents of the United States of America. White House Historical Association, 2009. Web. . Beschloss, Michael, and Hugh Sidey. The Presidents of the United States of America. White House Historical Association, 2009. Web. . Garrison, Justin. â€Å"A Covenant with all Mankind: Ronald Reagan’s Idyllic Vision of America in the World.† Vol. 21.Issue 1/2 (2008): p34-63, 30p. Print. PIOUS, RICHARD M. Presidential Studies Quarterly. Mar2012, Vol. 42 Issue 1, p190-204. 15p. DOI: 10.1111/j.1741-5705.2012.03948.x.